Vol. 16 No. 01 (2026): Journal of Materials & Construction
##common.pageHeaderLogo.altText##
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION

ISSN: 2734-9438

Website: www.jomc.vn

Influence of curing methods on the compressive strength development of 3D-printed concrete unit cells

Pham Thi Loan , Nguyen Thi Hoai Thu

Keywords:

3D Concrete Printing
Curing Methods
Natural air-drying
Membrane sealing
Water Immersion
Compressive Strength
Relative Performance

Abstract

This study provides a direct, quantitative comparison of three practical curing methods—Natural air-drying (ND), Membrane sealing (MB), and Water Immersion (WI)—on the compressive strength development of 3D-printed concrete (3DPC). Unit cell specimens were fabricated and subjected to the curing regimes immediately after printing, with strength evaluated at 7 and 28 days. Results demonstrate a substantial influence of the curing method. Membrane sealing (MB) proved most effective, yielding the highest strength (16.7 MPa and 19.7 MPa at 7 and 28 days, respectively). Using MB as a baseline (100%), a Relative Performance Index (RPI) revealed that Immersion (WI) and Natural curing (ND) retained only 89% and 80% of the 28-day strength, respectively. Qualitative analysis of failure modes showed cohesive vertical cracking without interlayer delamination, indicating that interlayer bonds remained competent and that the strength reduction under poor curing is primarily due to a generalized weakening of the cementitious matrix. This finding underscores that effective curing enhances overall material homogeneity. The pronounced performance deficit, particularly under natural drying, directly quantifies the critical vulnerability of 3DPC's layered microstructure to moisture loss. The findings deliver clear, data-driven evidence for implementing impermeable membrane curing as a vital and practical site practice to ensure the mechanical performance of digitally fabricated concrete.

User Navigation

How to Cite

Pham Thi Loan, & Nguyen Thi Hoai Thu. (2026). Influence of curing methods on the compressive strength development of 3D-printed concrete unit cells. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION, 16(01). https://doi.org/10.54772/jomc.v16i01.1226

References

  1. M. Surya, S. K. Singh, and S. K. Kirthika, “3-D Printing in Construction: A Review,” Nbm&Cw. 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.nbmcw.com/report/construction-infra-industry/39828-3-d-printing-in-construction-a-review.html
  2. Blogin3D, “Công Nghê In 3D Bê Tông: Kỷ Nguyên Xây Nhà Với Máy In 3D.” [Online]. Available: https://blogin3d.com/cong-nghe-in-3d-be-tong-ky-nguyen-xay-nha-voi-may-in-3d.html
  3. L. Minh, “Công nghệ in 3D trong xây dựng,” Bộ Xây dựng. [Online]. Available: http://moc.gov.vn/vn/tin-tuc/1145/52213/cong-nghe-in-3d-trong-xay-dung.aspx
  4. S. Cho, J. Kruger, S. Zeranka, and G. Van Zijl, “3D Printable Concrete Technology and Mechanics,” vol. 158, no. September, pp. 11–18, 2019.
  5. H. Tu, Z. Wei, A. Bahrami, N. Ben Kahla, A. Ahmad, and Y. O. Özkılıç, “Recent advancements and future trends in 3D concrete printing using waste materials,” Dev. Built Environ., vol. 16, no. April, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100187.
  6. T. Wangler et al., “Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges,” RILEM Tech. Lett., vol. 1, p. 67, Oct. 2016, doi: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2016.16.
  7. A. K. Al-Tamimi, H. H. Alqamish, A. Khaldoune, H. Alhaidary, and K. Shirvanimoghaddam, “Framework of 3D Concrete Printing Potential and Challenges,” Buildings, vol. 13, no. 3, 2023, doi: 10.3390/buildings13030827.
  8. I. Kothman and N. Faber, “How 3D printing technology changes the rules of the game Insights from the construction sector,” J. Manuf. Technol. Manag., vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 932–943, 2016, doi: 10.1108/JMTM-01-2016-0010.
  9. X. Lyu et al., “Mechanical performance and anisotropic analysis of rubberised 3D-printed concrete incorporating PP fibre,” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., vol. 31, no. 36, pp. 49100–49115, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s11356-024-34437-w.
  10. B. Panda, S. Chandra Paul, and M. Jen Tan, “Anisotropic mechanical performance of 3D printed fiber reinforced sustainable construction material,” Mater. Lett., vol. 209, pp. 146–149, Dec. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2017.07.123.
  11. K. Liu, K. Takasu, J. Jiang, K. Zu, and W. Gao, “Mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete components: A review,” Dev. Built Environ., vol. 16, no. August, p. 100292, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100292.
  12. B. Panda, N. A. N. Mohamed, S. C. Paul, G. V. P. B. Singh, M. J. Tan, and B. Šavija, “The effect of material fresh properties and process parameters on buildability and interlayer adhesion of 3D printed concrete,” Materials (Basel)., vol. 12, no. 13, 2019, doi: 10.3390/ma12132149.
  13. R. J. M. Wolfs, F. P. Bos, and T. A. M. Salet, “Hardened properties of 3D printed concrete: The influence of process parameters on interlayer adhesion,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 119, no. January, pp. 132–140, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.02.017.
  14. B. Nan, Y. Qiao, J. Leng, and Y. Bai, “Advancing Structural Reinforcement in 3D-Printed Concrete: Current Methods, Challenges, and Innovations,” Materials (Basel)., vol. 18, no. 2, 2025, doi: 10.3390/ma18020252.
  15. B. Panda, S. C. Paul, N. A. N. Mohamed, Y. W. D. Tay, and M. J. Tan, “Measurement of tensile bond strength of 3D printed geopolymer mortar,” Measurement, vol. 113, pp. 108–116, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.measurement.2017.08.051.
  16. B. Panda and M. J. Tan, “Experimental study on mix proportion and fresh properties of fly ash based geopolymer for 3D concrete printing,” Ceram. Int., vol. 44, no. 9, pp. 10258–10265, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.03.031.
  17. K. Yu, W. McGee, T. Y. Ng, H. Zhu, and V. C. Li, “3D-printable engineered cementitious composites (3DP-ECC): Fresh and hardened properties,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 143, p. 106388, May 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106388.
  18. K. Yu, W. McGee, T. Y. Ng, H. Zhu, and V. C. Li, “3D-printable engineered cementitious composites (3DP-ECC): Fresh and hardened properties,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 143, no. May 2020, p. 106388, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106388.
  19. “ACI 308R-18 Guide to Curing Concrete.” American Concrete Institute (ACI), Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=308R18
  20. “TCVN 8828:2011 Concrete-Requirements for natural moist curing.” Bộ Khoa học và Công nghệ, 2011.
  21. M. Nodehi, T. Ozbakkaloglu, and A. Gholampour, “Effect of supplementary cementitious materials on properties of 3D printed conventional and alkali-activated concrete: A review,” Autom. Constr., vol. 138, p. 104215, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104215.
  22. Y. Chen, Z. Chang, S. He, O. Çopuroğlu, B. Šavija, and E. Schlangen, “Effect of curing methods during a long time gap between two printing sessions on the interlayer bonding of 3D printed cementitious materials,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 332, p. 127394, May 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127394.
  23. Y. Wei and H. Zhang, “Influence of Temperature and Humidity on Mechanical Properties of Calcined Oyster-Shell Powder-Modified 3D-Printed Concrete,” ACS Omega, vol. 9, no. 37, pp. 39180–39187, Sep. 2024, doi: 10.1021/acsomega.4c06129.
  24. P. T. Duc, “Research on using original fly ash of Hai Phong thermal power plant as a mineral additive to improve the properties of large concrete blocks,” Hai Phong, 2019.
  25. L. T. Pham et al., “Development of 3D printers for concrete structures: mix proportion design approach and laboratory testing,” Smart Sustain. Built Environ., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 1056–1073, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.1108/SASBE-07-2022-0137.
  26. “Simplify3D Desktop Software.” [Online]. Available: https://www.simplify3d.com/
  27. G. University, “Mach3 CNC Control Software.” [Online]. Available: https://www.goodwin.edu/glossary/mach-3-cnc-control-software
  28. “ASTM C31/C31M-21 - Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field.” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2023.
  29. “TCVN 4506:2012 Water for concrete and mortar – Technical requirements.” Ministry of Science and Technology, Hanoi, 2012.
  30. TCVN 3118:1993, “Bê tông nặng – Phương pháp xác định cường độ nén (Heavyweight concrete - Method for determinatien of compressive strength),” Bộ Xây dựng. pp. 2–6, 1993.